Gallium nitride crystals and wafers and method of making

ABSTRACT

A crystal comprising gallium nitride is disclosed. The crystal has at least one grain having at least one dimension greater than 2.75 mm, a dislocation density less than about 10 4  cm −2 , and is substantially free of tilt boundaries.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 11/376,575, filed on Mar. 15, 2006, which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 11/010,507, filed Dec. 13, 2004, and a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 10/329,981, filed Dec. 27, 2002. This application claims priority to and benefit from the foregoing, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

The United States Government may have certain rights in this invention pursuant to Cooperative Agreement No. 70NANB9H3020, awarded by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, United States Department of Commerce.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This invention is related generally to a high quality single crystal comprising gallium nitride and a method of making the same.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

Gallium nitride (GaN) based optoelectronic and electronic devices are of tremendous commercial importance. However, the quality and reliability of these devices is compromised by very high defect levels, particularly threading dislocations in semiconductor layers of the devices. These dislocations can arise from lattice mismatch of GaN based semiconductor layers to a non-GaN substrate such as sapphire or silicon carbide. Additional defects can arise from thermal expansion mismatch, impurities, and tilt boundaries, depending on the details of the growth method of the layers.

The presence of defects has a deleterious effect on epitaxially-grown layers, compromising electronic device performance and reliability and requiring complex, tedious fabrication steps to reduce the concentration and/or impact of the defects. While a substantial number of growth methods for crystals comprising gallium nitride have been proposed, the methods to date still merit improvement.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,637,531 and 6,273,948 disclose methods for growing gallium nitride crystals at high pressure and high temperature, using liquid gallium and gallium-based alloys as a solvent and a high pressure of nitrogen above the melt to maintain GaN as a thermodynamically-stable phase. The process is capable of growing electrically-conductive GaN crystals with a dislocation density of about 10³-10⁵ cm⁻² or, alternatively, semi-insulating GaN crystals with a dislocation density of about 10-10⁴ cm⁻², as described by Porowski, “Near defect-free GaN substrates” [MRS Internet J. Nitride Semicond. Research 4S1, G1.3 (1999)].

The conductive crystals, however, have a high concentration of n-type defects, on the order of 5×10¹⁹ cm⁻³. These defects are believed to comprise oxygen impurities and nitrogen vacancies. As a consequence, the crystals are relatively opaque, with an absorption coefficient of about 200 cm⁻¹ at wavelengths in the visible portion of the spectrum. As a consequence, up to half the light emitted by a light emitting diode (LED) fabricated on such a crystal is absorbed by the substrate. This constitutes a large disadvantage compared to conventional heteroepitaxial LEDs fabricated on sapphire or transparent SiC substrates. Further, the high concentration of n-type defects in nominally undoped crystals grown in molten Ga causes the lattice constant to increase by about 0.01-0.02%, generating lattice mismatch and leading to strain in undoped epitaxial GaN layers deposited thereupon. Additionally, the undoped GaN substrates formed by this method have a rather low carrier mobility, about 30-90 cm²/V-s, which may adversely impact performance in high-power devices.

The transparency and dislocation density of GaN crystals grown in liquid Ga may be improved by the addition of Mg or Be to the growth medium, but the crystals so produced are semi-insulating, with a resistivity above about 10⁵ Ω-cm. Such crystals are not appropriate for vertical devices in which one electrical contact is made to the substrate itself. These substrates have several additional disadvantages, including: (i) a high concentration of Mg and O atoms, approximately 10¹⁹ cm⁻³ each [J. I. Pankove et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 74,416 (1999)], which could potentially diffuse into device structures during high temperature processing; and (ii) relatively poor thermal conductivity. Dopants may diffuse into the undoped GaN buffer layer in a high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), for example, in which transport by the two-dimensional electron gas is designed to occur, degrading carrier mobility. In addition, the presence of the point defects scatters phonons in the bulk GaN substrate and degrades thermal conductivity, which is detrimental to achieving theoretical performance levels in GaN-based HEMTs.

A final but very important limitation of the method of Porowski and co-workers is that it does not appear to be scalable, that is, capable of producing GaN boules and wafers with diameters of 50 mm and above. The process typically yields a number of platelet crystals, with a diameter of about 10 mm and a thickness of 0.1-0.2 mm; prolonged growth does not produce larger crystals of comparable quality. The largest crystal grown to date by this method is about 20 mm in diameter. Because the process yields platelets rather than thick boules, the economies of scale associated with conventional wafering technology (slicing, polishing) cannot be achieved and the substrates will remain extremely expensive.

The most mature technology for growth of pseudo-bulk or bulk GaN is hydride/halide vapor phase epitaxy, also known as HVPE. In the most-widely applied approach, HCl reacts with liquid Ga to form vapor-phase GaCl, which is transported to a substrate where it reacts with injected NH₃ to form GaN. Typically the deposition is performed on a non-GaN substrate such as sapphire, silicon, gallium arsenide, or LiGaO₂. The dislocation density in HVPE-grown films is initially quite high, on the order of 10¹⁰ cm⁻² as is typical for heteroepitaxy of GaN, but drops to a value of about 10⁷ cm⁻² after a thickness of 100-300 μm of GaN has been grown. For example, Vaudo et al. [U.S. Pat. No. 6,596,079] teach a method for fabricating GaN wafers or boules with a dislocation density below 10⁷ cm⁻².

HVPE may be capable of reducing defect levels further in thicker films, but values below 10⁴ cm⁻² over an entire wafer seem unlikely. It is well established that the dislocation density of GaN grown on a non-GaN substrate (or on a GaN substrate that was itself grown on a non-GaN substrate) decreases as the GaN layer becomes thicker. Even if GaN wafers are sliced from a thick HVPE-grown boule and used as a seed for additional growth, the residual dislocations and grain or tilt boundaries are expected to persist indefinitely. Vaudo et al. [Phys. Stat. Solidi(a) 194, 494 (2002)] reported a dislocation density below 10⁴ cm⁻² within a grain of a thick HVPE film; however, the dislocation density between grains, most likely comprising predominantly edge dislocations, is expected to be much higher. In addition, strain is present in HVPE wafers due to the thermal expansion mismatch between substrate and film. This strain produces bowing upon cool down of the substrate and film after growth. At least a portion of the strain and bowing remain even after removal of the original substrate. Threading dislocations, strain, and bowing that are present in the substrate are expected to also be present in epitaxial layers deposited on such substrates to form optoelectronic or electronic devices.

Melnik et al. [U.S. Pat. No. 6,613,143] disclose a HVPE growth method for GaN on SiC substrates. These inventors report that the defect density was measured using wet chemical etching in hot acid. Melnik et al. report etch pit densities of 10-100 cm⁻² for wafers sliced from a 1-cm-thick boule and of 10-1000 or 100-10,000 cm⁻² for wafers sliced from boules that were 5, 7, or 9 mm thick. It is very likely that the etch pit densities reported by Melnik et al. in fact greatly underestimate the dislocation density in these materials. The growth method of Melnik et al. is distinct in some details (e.g., the use of a SiC substrate) but is overall very similar to the methods employed by a number of other groups. Based on FIG. 9, for a GaN layer about 5 to 10 mm thick, a dislocation density in the range of 10⁵-10⁶ cm⁻² would be expected, in contrast to the EPD values of 10-10,000 cm⁻² reported by Melnik et al. While a discrepancy by a factor of 10 from the data in FIG. 1 may be within observed variation from experiment to experiment and from group to group, a factor of 10⁴ (10 versus 10⁵ cm⁻²) is not at all credible. It is also well established that etch pit densities in GaN can grossly underestimate dislocation densities, particularly when measured using acid treatments of the type employed by Melnik, for example, by a factor of 10 or more.

In addition, thick films, of the type grown by Vaudo et al. and by Melnik et al. by HVPE, will contain tilt boundaries despite the use of a single seed. Such behavior in thick GaN films grown by HVPE has been reported by many authors. Tilt boundaries will persist throughout an entire GaN ingot, regardless of its thickness. The same is true for GaN grown on a GaN seed containing tilt boundaries, for example, because it originated from a heteroepitaxial film on a substrate such as SiC or sapphire.

Other widely-applied methods for growth of large area, low-dislocation-density GaN are variously referred to as epitaxial lateral overgrowth (ELO or ELOG), lateral epitaxial overgrowth (LEO), selective area growth (SAG), dislocation elimination by epitaxial growth with inverse pyramidal pits (DEEP), or the like. In the case of all variations of this method, heteroepitaxial GaN growth is initiated in a one- or two-dimensional array of locations on a substrate, where the locations are separated by a mask, trenches, or the like. The period or pitch of the growth locations is between 3 and 100 μm, typically between about 10 and 20 μm. The individual GaN crystallites grow and then coalesce. Epitaxial growth is then continued on top of the coalesced GaN material to produce a thick film or “ingot.” Typically, the thick GaN layer formed on the coalesced GaN material is deposited by HVPE.

The ELO process is capable of large reductions in the concentration of dislocations, particularly in the regions above the mask, typically to levels of about 10⁵-10⁷ cm⁻². However, many types of devices fabricated on ELO substrates will have a surface area of at least about 10⁴ μm² (10⁻⁴ cm²) and still contain a substantial number of threading dislocations. In addition, an ELO GaN substrate is not a true single crystal although a number of authors do refer to ELO structures as single crystals. Each individual GaN crystallite constitutes a grain, and there is typically a low-angle grain boundary or a tilt boundary at the points where the grains coalesce. The low-angle or tilt boundaries are manifested as an array of edge dislocations, and generate lateral strain within the GaN. The extent and severity of the crystallographic tilting depends on the details of the masking and growth conditions, but there is generally at least a low level of tilting associated with grain coalescence. Much or most of the crystallographic tilting forms directly during growth, rather than simply being a consequence of thermal expansion mismatch. The separation between the tilt boundaries is equal to the period or pitch of the original mask, or typically about 10-20 μm. The tilt boundaries will persist indefinitely through epitaxial layers grown on such a substrate. The consequence is that devices formed on such substrates will also have tilt boundaries running through them if the devices have lateral dimensions larger than about 100 μm, and particularly if they have lateral dimensions larger than about 300 μm, and even more so if they have lateral dimensions larger than about 2000 μm.

Residual stress or strain in homoepitaxial GaN-based devices resulting, for example, from the presence of tilt boundaries, may accelerate the degradation of laser diodes, high-power light emitting diodes, high power transistors, or other devices. Similarly, dislocations associated with tilt boundaries may reduce the lifetime of high-power light emitting diodes, laser diodes, and power electronic devices. An example of such behavior, showing the dependence of laser diode lifetime on dislocation density, is shown in FIG. 12. Degradation of device lifetimes by dislocations may result from facilitating impurity diffusion into the active layer or from facile generation of new dislocations. Dislocations may act as non-radiative recombination centers, degrading the light emission efficiency of light emitting diodes and laser diodes. Dislocations may also increase reverse-bias current leakage, degrading the performance of diodes, transistors, and photodetectors. Clearly, the presence of even a single dislocation within a GaN-based device can degrade its performance and/or lifetime.

The tilt-grain-boundary structure and lateral strain persists throughout an entire ingot and therefore into each substrate sliced from this ingot. In other words, no substrate sliced from such an ingot will be a true single crystal, free of tilt boundaries and lateral strain. In addition, the GaN substrate is likely to suffer from the same deficiencies in UV absorption and photoluminescence at room temperature as “standard” HVPE GaN.

Other methods for crystal growth of GaN involve the use of supercritical ammonia as a solvent. Several groups have reported growth of very small GaN crystals in supercritical ammonia, notably Kolis et al. in “Materials Chemistry and Bulk Crystal Growth of Group III Nitrides in Supercritical Ammonia”, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 495, 367 (1998)]; “Crystal Growth of Gallium Nitride in Supercritical Ammonia”, J. Cryst. Growth 222, 431 (2001); “Synchrotron white beam topography characterization of physical vapor transport grown AlN and ammonothermal GaN”, J. Cryst. Growth 246, 271 (2002); and Dwilinski et al. in “AMMONO Method of GaN and AlN Production”, Diamond Relat. Mater. 7, 1348 (1998); “AMMONO Method of BN, AlN, and GaN Synthesis and Crystal Growth”, MRS Internet J. Nitride Semiconductor Res. 3, article 25 (1997); “On GaN Crystallization by Ammonothermal Method” Acta Phys. Pol. A 90, 763 (1996); and “GaN Synthesis by Ammonothermal Method” Acta Phys. Polonica A 88, 833 (1995)]. These methods generally use ammonobasic chemistry, with the addition of a mineralizer chosen from at least one of A, ANH₂, or AX, where A is an alkali atom and X is a halide. In the presence of NH₃, alkali atoms A will generally react to form ANH₂+½ H₂ and are therefore also considered basic. However, only small crystals or mm-sized crystals of rather poor quality, with a dislocation density above about 10⁶ cm⁻², have been reported to date. In addition, these authors do not disclose the use of temperature gradient profiles to optimize growth on seeds.

More recently, Dwilinski et al. [U.S. Pat. No. 6,656,615 and PCT application WO 03/035945] disclose an improved ammonobasic method for growing GaN involving the use of compound temperature gradient profiles. These inventors teach a dislocation density in the range of 10⁴-10⁸ cm⁻² or less, but present only a single example, claiming a dislocation density of 6×10⁴ cm⁻² in a layer about 200-300 μm thick above an HVPE seed. Based on published accounts of dislocation density as a function of layer thickness in HVPE GaN, this value seems unrealistically low, perhaps due to undercounting resulting from difficulty in resolving adjacent dark spots in cathodoluminescence images. In addition, Dwilinski et al. present no teaching on the elimination of tilt boundaries from GaN crystals. Tilt boundaries will certainly be present in GaN crystals grown by their method because of their use of HVPE seeds, which inevitably contain tilt boundaries. Dwilinski et al. teach the addition of gallium or alkali metal to the reactor. Such additions will produce hydrogen by chemical reaction with ammonia, which is undesirable because hydrogen tends to embrittle the walls of the pressure vessel and is not an effective solvent for GaN. These inventors teach the use of pressures as high as 10 kbar but no effective way of achieving them, since the autoclaves disclosed as pressure vessels can safely reach a maximum pressure of only 5 kbar. An additional limitation of the method of Dwilinski et al. is that growth rates are quite small, ca. 0.2-3 μm/hr. These rates are comparable to those achieved by conventional MOCVD, and raise serious questions about the economic viability of the method.

French patent FR 2,796,657 to Demazeau et al. discloses a method for GaN growth in supercritical ammonia or hydrazine at pressures of 0.05-20 kbar, temperatures of 100-600° C., and a temperature gradient of 10-100° C. The only apparatus taught by Demazeau to access these conditions is a Tuttle-type cold-seal pressure vessel, which is well known in the art and is limited to a maximum pressure of 5-6 kbar. Standard pressure vessels are limited to a pressure of about 5-6 kbar when working with NH₃, as discussed by Jacobs and Schmidt in “High Pressure Arnmonolysis in Solid-State Chemistry”, Curr. Topics Mater. Sci. 8, ed. by E Kaldis (North-Holland, 1982)], limiting the maximum temperature, reaction rate, and, in all likelihood, crystalline quality. Therefore, Demazeau discloses no method capable of reaching the higher pressure range, and does not demonstrate GaN crystals larger than 1 mm in size. In addition, Demazeau does not teach the use of temperature gradient profiles to optimize growth on seeds.

Purdy [U.S. Pat. No. 6,177,057 and 2003/0209191 and Cryst. Growth Design 2, 141 (2002)] and Chen [Mater. Res. Bull. 36, 2155 (2001)] teach the use of the acid mineralizers NH₄Cl, NH₄Br, and NH₄I, at concentrations of 1-5 mole percent in ammonia, for GaN growth. Both sets of authors focus mainly on cubic (zincblende) GaN rather than hexagonal (wurtzite) GaN. However, the latter is obtained at higher temperatures. Purdy teaches away from the use of NH₄F as a mineralizer, citing its low solubility in liquid NH₃ and irreversible formation of GaF₃. Indeed, Kolis [Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 495, 367 (1998)] reports apparently-irreversible formation of an unidentified complex when using NH₄F as a mineralizer, and did not observe any GaN growth.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,398,867 to D'Evelyn et al. discloses a method for temperature gradient recrystallization of GaN in a supercritical fluid at a pressure greater than 5 kbar, a temperature greater than 550° C., with a temperature gradient of 5-300° C. These authors do not teach the use of temperature gradient profiles to optimize growth on seeds, nor the demonstration of dislocation densities below 10⁴ cm⁻².

Gallium nitride grown by all known methods contains native defects that may degrade the properties of the crystal and of devices grown thereupon. One commonly occurring native defect is the Ga vacancy which, in n-type GaN, acts as a deep, triple acceptor that compensates donors. In principle, hydrogen can bind to gallium vacancies, capping the dangling bond on 1-4 surrounding N atoms to form N—H bonds, denoted V_(Ga)H, V_(Ga)H₂, V_(Ga)H₃, and V_(Ga)H₄. N—H bonds associated with Ga vacancies are predicted [C. Van de Walle, Phys. Rev. B 56, R10020 (1997)] to have vibration frequencies between 3100 and 3500 cm⁻¹ and to be quite stable. However, known GaN crystal growth methods do not provide a means for passivating Ga vacancies by hydrogenation. For example, infrared transmission spectroscopy on 300-400 μm thick GaN samples grown by HVPE revealed weak absorption features near 2850 and 2915 cm⁻¹ associated with another defect, but no absorption features between 3100 and 3500 cm⁻¹ that could be assigned to hydrogenated Ga vacancies were observed.

Doping of GaN by rare earth metals is known to produce luminescence. For example, Lozykowski et al. [U.S. Pat. No. 6,140,669] teach the incorporation of rare earth ions into GaN layers by ion implantation, MOCVD, or MBE, and annealing at 1000° C. or greater. Birkhahn et al. [U.S. Pat. No. 6,255,669] teach the fabrication of light-emitting diodes using GaN layers doped with a rare earth ion or with chromium. However, these inventions focus on thin GaN epitaxial layers rather than bulk crystals. Growth of luminescent, bulk GaN or homoepitaxial GaN that is substantially free of tilt boundaries, with a dislocation density of less than 10⁴ or 100 cm⁻², is as yet unknown in the art.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a single crystal comprising gallium nitride at least about 2.75 millimeters in at least one dimension, with a dislocation density of less than about 10⁴ cm⁻¹, and having substantially no tilt boundaries.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a single crystal comprising gallium nitride at least about 2.75 millimeters in at least one dimension, and having no tilt boundaries, wherein the single crystal has a photoluminescence spectrum which peaks at a photon energy of between about 3.38 and about 3.41 eV at a crystal temperature of 300° K.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of forming a single crystal comprising gallium nitride. The method comprises (a) providing a nucleation center in a first region of a chamber; (b) providing a source material comprising gallium nitride in a second region of the chamber; (c) providing a solvent in the chamber; (d) pressurizing the chamber; (e) generating and holding a first temperature distribution such that the solvent is supersaturated in the first region of the chamber and such that there is a first temperature gradient between the nucleation center and the source material such that crystal comprising gallium nitride grows on the nucleation center; and (f) generating a second temperature distribution in the chamber such that the solvent is supersaturated in the first region of the chamber and such that there is a second temperature gradient between the nucleation center and the source material comprising gallium nitride such that crystal comprising gallium nitride grows on the nucleation center, wherein the second temperature gradient is larger in magnitude than the first temperature gradient and the crystal growth rate is greater for the second temperature distribution than for the first temperature distribution.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of forming a single crystal comprising gallium nitride. The method comprises (a) providing a nucleation center in a first region of a chamber having a first end; (b) providing a source material comprising gallium nitride in a second region of the chamber having a second end; (c) providing a solvent in the chamber; (d) pressurizing the chamber to a pressure of between 5 and 80 kbar; (e) generating and holding a first temperature distribution having an average temperature between about 550° C. and about 1200° C. such that the solvent is supersaturated in the first region of the chamber and such that there is a first temperature gradient between the first end and the second end such that crystal comprising gallium nitride grows on the nucleation center; and (f) generating a second temperature distribution in the chamber having an average temperature between about 550° C. and about 1200° C. such that the solvent is supersaturated in the first region of the chamber and such that there is a second temperature gradient between the first end and the second end such that crystal comprising gallium nitride grows on the nucleation center, wherein the second temperature gradient is larger in magnitude than the first temperature gradient and the crystal growth rate is greater for the second temperature distribution than for the first temperature distribution.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of forming a single crystal comprising gallium nitride. The method comprises (a) providing a nucleation center in a first region of a chamber having a first end; (b) providing a source material comprising gallium nitride in a second region of the chamber having a second end; (c) providing a solvent in the chamber; (d) pressurizing the chamber; (e) generating and holding a first temperature distribution such that there is a first temperature gradient between the first end and the second end; and (f) generating a second temperature distribution in the chamber such that the solvent is supersaturated in the first region of the chamber and such that there is a second temperature gradient between the first end and the second end such that GaN crystal grows on the nucleation center, wherein the first temperature gradient is zero or opposite in sign from the second temperature gradient.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic cross-sectional representation of a capsule used for making a single crystal comprising gallium nitride according to a preferred embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2 is a schematic cross-sectional representation of a pressure vessel used for making a single crystal comprising gallium nitride according to a preferred embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3 is a series of photoluminescence spectra of a GaN crystal according to a preferred embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of the evolution of dislocations in bulk GaN grown on a c-oriented seed crystal containing dislocations.

FIG. 5 is a schematic illustration of the evolution of tilt boundaries in bulk GaN grown on a c-oriented seed crystal containing tilt boundaries.

FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of GaN seeds with cutouts enabling growth of large areas of low-dislocation-density crystals even with defective seeds.

FIG. 7 is a schematic illustration of the edges of GaN wafers with (a) a simply-ground edge; (b) a chamfered edge; or (c) a rounded edge.

FIG. 8 shows the infrared spectrum of an exemplary bulk GaN substrate.

FIG. 9 shows the approximate dislocation density as a function of thickness for GaN films grown by HVPE.

FIG. 10 is a photograph of a GaN crystal grown by the inventive method.

FIG. 11 is a photograph of another GaN crystal grown by the inventive method.

FIG. 12 is a plot showing the dependence of laser diode lifetime on dislocation density.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Reference will now be made in detail to presently preferred embodiments of the present invention. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts.

As used herein, the term “crystalline composition comprising gallium nitride” may be used interchangeably with “a crystal comprising gallium nitride.”

Crystalline composition defects refers to one or more of point defects, such as vacancies, interstitials, and impurities; one-dimensional linear defects, such as dislocations (edge, screw, mixed); two-dimensional planar defects, such as tilt boundaries, grain boundaries, cleavage points and surfaces; and three-dimensional extended defects, such as pores, pits, and cracks. Defect may refer to one or more of the foregoing unless context or language indicates that the subject is a particular subset of defect.

“Free of two-dimensional defects” may be used interchangeably with “free of tilt boundaries” or “substantially free of tilt boundaries,” meaning that the crystalline composition may have tilt boundaries at an insubstantial level, or with a tilt angle such that the tilt boundaries may not be readily detectable by TEM or X-ray diffraction; or, the crystalline composition may include tilt boundaries that are widely separated from one another, e.g., by at least 1 millimeters or by a greater, and specified, distance. Thus, “free” or “substantially free” may be used in combination with a term, and may include an insubstantial number or trace amounts while still being considered free of the modified term, and “free” or “substantially free” may include further the complete absence of the modified term.

As used herein, a boule may be used interchangeably with an ingot, referring to a crystal having a volume in excess of 0.2 cm³ with a minimum thickness (z dimension) of 0.2 cm.

As used herein, a “black” crystal refers to a crystal with an optical absorption of at least 93% for the wavelength range of 190 nm-700 nm.

As used herein, “near-band-edge photoluminescence” refers to luminescence occurring within 0.2 eV of the bend edge.

As used herein, the term magnetic refers to a property that ranges from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic.

As used herein, the x-ray rocking curve full width at half maximum of the (0002) reflection in the ω direction of a grain is measured using a commercially available x-ray diffractometer. In one embodiment, the x-ray beam incident on the sample has a diameter of about one to two millimeters. In one embodiment, the entrance slits to the detector are wide open, with a receiving aperture of about two to three millimeters. In one embodiment, the x-ray rocking curve full width at half maximum is measured using the symmetric (0002) reflection. In another embodiment, the x-ray rocking curve full width at half maximum is measured using an asymmetric reflection, such as (10-12), (10-14), (10-15), (20-21), or (11-24).

In a group III semiconductor crystal, there are three dimensions as represented by x, y, w characters, with w as the thickness, and x and y the dimensions of the crystal plane perpendicular to w. For a round or circular crystal, x=y=the diameter of the crystalline composition.

As used herein, the term “group III nitride semiconductor crystals” or “crystalline composition” or “crystalline composition comprising gallium nitride” refers to GaN, AlN, InN, AlGaN, InGaN and their alloys thereof, as represented by Al_(x)In_(y)Ga_(1-x-y)N, where 0<=x<=1, 0<=y<=1 and 0<=x+y<=1. As used herein, the term “crystalline composition comprising gallium nitride” may be used interchangeably with “a crystal comprising gallium nitride,” “gallium nitride crystal,” or “GaN crystal.”

The present inventors have found that GaN nucleates very readily in supercritical ammonia and other supercritical GaN solvents so that recrystallization produces many small crystals rather than one large crystal. While small high quality GaN crystals could be grown by the methods known in the prior art, no high quality crystal larger than 2.75 mm (in the x or y dimension) with a dislocation density below 10⁴ cm⁻² has been grown by these methods. The present inventors have found that a method using an improved temperature profile including appropriate temperature gradients, together with an improved method for mounting seed crystals, is capable of overcoming these limitations.

According to embodiments of the present invention, a true single crystal comprising gallium nitride that is substantially free of grain and tilt boundaries, may be synthesized, and grown from a single nucleus to a size of at least 2.75 mm in diameter. The single crystal may be n-type, electrically conductive, optically transparent, free of lateral strain and tilt boundaries, and with a dislocation density of less than about 10⁴ cm⁻² Preferably, the dislocation density is less than about 10³ cm⁻². In another embodiment, the dislocation density is less than about 100 cm⁻². In one embodiment, the single crystal is p-type; in another, it is semi-insulating. In another embodiment, the single crystal is magnetic; in yet another, it is luminescent; in still another, it is optically absorbing or black. In one embodiment, the crystal contains hydrogen in a form that results in an infrared absorption peak near 3175 cm⁻¹, with an absorbance per unit thickness greater than about 0.01 cm⁻¹. In another embodiment, the substrate contains greater than about 0.04 ppm fluorine, and typically between about 0.04 and 1 ppm fluorine. In one embodiment, the crystal is doped with at least one of Be, C, O, Mg, Si, H, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ge, Zr, Hf, or a rare earth metal at a concentration between about 10¹⁶ cm⁻³ and about 10²¹ cm⁻³.

This large high quality single crystal comprising gallium nitride may be grown by temperature gradient recrystallization at high pressure and high temperature in a superheated fluid solvent. The crystal is a true single crystal, i.e., it does not have tilt boundaries. These crystals may be grown by temperature-gradient recrystallization in a superheated fluid, including but not limited to ammonia, hydrazine, methylamine, ethylenediamine, melamine, or other nitrogen-containing fluid. The source material may include gallium and nitrogen, which may be in the form of, for example, gallium nitride crystalline powder. Other forms of source material may be used, for example, single crystal or polycrystalline GaN, single crystal or polycrystalline AlN, amorphous gallium nitride or a gallium nitride precursor such as gallium metal or a gallium compound. Single crystal or polycrystalline AlN or GaN can be grown by a number of methods known in the art. Other forms can also be used, for example, amorphous AlN or an AlN precursor such as Al metal or an Al compound, or amorphous GaN or a GaN precursor such as Ga metal or a Ga compound. It is preferred that the source material comprises one or more particles that are sufficiently large in size so as not to pass through the openings in a baffle, described below, that separates the source region, where the source material is located, from the crystal growth region, where a nucleation center is located, of a chamber or capsule, as discussed in more detail below. In one embodiment for the growth of non-GaN nitrides, the oxide content of the source material is kept at less than about 1 weight percent.

Nucleation for group III nitride growth may be induced on the crystal growth portion of the capsule at a nucleation center without a seed crystal, such as a portion of the container wall, or with a non-nitride seed crystal such as sapphire, for example. It is preferred, however, that a seed crystal comprising gallium nitride is provided, because the process is easier to control and the quality of the grown crystal is higher.

Suitable seed crystals may be GaN-based, or may be non-GaN-based. A seed crystal formed entirely from the same nitride may be used for ease of control and because the quality of the grown crystalline composition may be relatively higher. In one embodiment for the growth of AlN, nucleation can be induced on the crystal growth portion of the cell with a non-AlN seed crystal such as silicon carbide, but the process is easier to control if an AlN seed crystal is provided. Suitable GaN-based seed crystals may include a free-standing gallium nitride film grown by at least one of HVPE, sublimation, or metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), or by a crystalline composition grown in a superheated fluid in a previous run. A variety of types of AlN seed crystals may be used for growing AlN, including an epitaxial AlN layer on a non-AlN substrate such as sapphire or SiC, a free-standing AlN film grown by HVPE or MOCVD, an AlN crystal grown by sublimation/recondensation, or a crystal grown in a supercritical fluid in a previous run.

If a seed crystal that is not entirely formed from gallium nitride is not used, a suitable non-GaN seed crystal may include sapphire or silicon carbide. In one embodiment, the non-GaN-based seed crystal may be pre-coated with a layer of gallium nitride on a growth surface. Suitable coated seed crystals may include an epitaxial gallium nitride layer on a non-GaN substrate. Whether GaN-based or non-GaN-based, the seed crystal may include an amount of fluorine greater than about 0.04 ppm, or in a range of from about 0.04 to about 1 ppm fluorine. The seed crystal may include an amount of chlorine greater than about 0.04 ppm, or in a range of from about 0.04 to about 1 ppm chlorine. In one embodiment, the seed crystal is essentially halogen-free.

The seed crystal is preferably larger than 1 mm in at least one of x or y dimension and of high quality, substantially free of tilt boundaries and having a dislocation density less of than about 10⁸ cm⁻², and preferably below about 10⁵ cm⁻².

The seed may have any crystallographic orientation, as growth occurs on all exposed surfaces. Crystals grown from seeds are typically terminated predominantly by (0001), (000 1), and (1 1 00) facets, and all these orientations are suitable for seed surfaces. The (11 2 0) surfaces are typically fast growing in the inventive method, and also constitute favorable seed surface orientations. In one embodiment, the crystallographic orientation of the GaN crystals that are grown are within about 10° of one of the (0001) orientation, the (000 1) orientation, the (10 1 0) orientation, the (11 2 0) orientation, and the (10 1 1) orientation. In another embodiment, the orientation of the grown GaN crystals is within about 5° of one of these orientations. A standard metric for the crystallinity of as-grown GaN crystals or of GaN wafers is provided by x-ray diffraction rocking curve measurements of the (0002) reflection. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the (0002) diffraction intensity versus ω of GaN crystals and wafers of the inventive method will typically be less than 50 arc-seconds.

In a preferred embodiment, the GaN seed crystals have a dislocation density below 10⁴ cm⁻² and are substantially free of tilt boundaries (also known as low-angle grain boundaries), resulting in GaN crystals that similarly have a dislocation density below about 10⁴ cm⁻² and are substantially free of tilt boundaries. In another embodiment, the GaN seed crystals contain one or more tilt boundaries. For example, GaN crystals grown by HVPE may be employed as seed crystals. Such an approach offers a convenient path to large-area seed crystals. However, GaN crystals grown by HVPE typically have a dislocation density in the range of 10⁵-10⁸ cm⁻². In addition, heteroepitaxy produces mosaic structures and, as the thickness of the heteroepitaxial film increases, for example, above 1 mm, the presence of tilt boundaries in the thick film becomes increasingly apparent. A bulk crystal comprising gallium nitride grown according to the present invention on a seed with tilt boundaries will also contain tilt boundaries.

Crystals comprising gallium nitride with a dislocation density below about 10⁴ cm⁻² that are substantially free from tilt boundaries may be grown from seed crystals with a dislocation density of about 10⁵-10⁸ cm⁻² and tilt boundaries by the following procedure. By suitable control of the solvent fill, mineralizer concentration, temperature, and temperature gradient, growth on the seed will occur in both the c direction (that is, (0001) and (000 1), along the c-axis) and perpendicular to the c direction. The dislocation density 410 in bulk GaN grown in the c-direction is reduced significantly. For example, growth of a 300-800 μm thick layer above a c-oriented seed crystal 402 containing approximately 10⁷ dislocations cm⁻² results in a GaN crystal with approximately 1-3×10⁶ dislocations cm⁻² in the region above the seed 404, as shown in FIG. 4. However, the bulk GaN grown laterally 406 with respect to a c-oriented seed crystal 402 has fewer than 10⁴ dislocations cm⁻², preferably fewer than 10³ dislocations cm⁻², and even more preferably fewer than 100 dislocations cm⁻², as illustrated in FIG. 4. Tilt boundaries 510 that are present in a c-oriented seed crystal 502 will propagate during growth in the c direction, resulting in a grain structure in bulk GaN grown above 504 the seed that is similar to that in the seed 502, as illustrated schematically in FIG. 5. However, tilt boundaries 510 will radiate outward in bulk GaN that is grown laterally, resulting in progressively larger domains 520 that are free of tilt boundaries 510 as the crystal becomes larger, as illustrated in FIG. 5. The position of the tilt boundaries 510 may be determined by a method that is well known in the art, such as x-ray diffraction, x-ray topography, or simple optical reflection, and a new seed crystal may be cut from the laterally-grown GaN that is entirely free of tilt boundaries. Bulk GaN grown from this new seed crystal will be substantially free of tilt boundaries and will have a dislocation density below 10⁴ cm⁻², preferably below 10³ cm⁻², and even more preferably below 100 cm⁻².

Relatively large areas of crystal comprising gallium nitride with a dislocation density below 10⁴ cm⁻², preferably below 10³ cm⁻², and even more preferably below 100 cm⁻² may be prepared using seeds with higher dislocation densities by the following procedure. Holes, cutouts, or zigzag patterns are placed in the seeds by means of cutting by a laser, for example. Examples of such seeds 610 are shown in FIG. 6. The holes, cutouts, or other patterns may be round, elliptical, square, or rectangular, for example. In a preferred embodiment, shown in FIG. 6, the long dimensions of slots 602 or zigzag cuts 604 are oriented approximately parallel to (10 1 0) (m plane). In this orientation a steady growth front will occur, filling in the slot 602 or space 606 smoothly. In this way lateral growth 612 can take place in the central portion of a crystal rather than just at the periphery, producing large domains 608 of very low dislocation density, below 10⁴ cm⁻², material even when using seeds with a relatively high dislocation density, above 10⁶ cm⁻². This process may be repeated. A crystal grown by the method described above will contain regions of moderately low and very low dislocation densities. Regions of the crystal with higher dislocation densities may be cut out and the crystal used again as a seed. Lateral growth 612 will again fill in the cut out 602 areas with very low dislocation density material 608. In this way large area crystals comprising gallium nitride can be produced that have dislocation densities less than 10⁴ cm⁻², and preferably less than 100 cm⁻², over greater than 80% of their area. These crystals will contain tilt boundaries at the regions of coalescence in the laterally-grown material, but the separation between the tilt boundaries can be made larger than 2.75 mm, 5 mm, 10 mm, 25 mm, or even larger.

By these lateral growth methods, either along the periphery of a seed crystal or with a patterned seed crystal, it is possible to produce crystals comprising gallium nitride with single-crystal grains at least 2.75 mm or 5 mm, 10 mm, 25 mm, or as large as 600 mm in at least one of x or y dimension. Use of a wafer sliced from such a crystal as a substrate enables fabrication of large-area homoepitaxial GaN-based electronic or optoelectronic devices that are substantially free of tilt boundaries.

The source material and one or more seeds, if used, are placed in a pressure vessel or capsule that is divided into at least two regions by means of a porous baffle. An exemplary capsule is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/683,659 to D'Evelyn et al. filed on Jan. 31, 2002, and entitled “High Temperature Pressure Capsule For Processing Material in Supercritical Fluids,” incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary capsule 100. The capsule 100 includes a wall 102, which can be sealed to surround a chamber 104 of the capsule 100. The chamber is divided into a first region 108 and a second region 106 separated by a porous baffle 110. During crystallization growth the capsule 100 contains a seed crystal 120 or other nucleation center and a source material 124 separated from each other by the baffle 110. The source material 124 and the seed crystal 120 may be positioned in the second region 106 and the first region 108, respectively, for example. The capsule 100 also contains a solvent material 130. During the growth process, described below, a grown crystal 132 is grown on the seed crystal 120 and the solvent is in a superheated state.

The baffle 110 may comprise, for example, a plate with a plurality of holes in it, or a woven metal cloth. The fractional open area of the baffle 110 may be between 1% and 50%, and preferably between about 5% and about 40%. Transport of nutrient from the source material 124 to the seed crystal 120 or grown crystal 132 is optimized in the solvent as a superheated fluid if the colder portion of the capsule 100 is above the warmer portion, so that self-convection stirs the fluid. In many solvents the solubility of group III nitrides increases with temperature, and in this case the source material 124 should be placed in the bottom warmer portion of the capsule and the seed crystal 120 in the top colder portion of the capsule.

The seed crystal 120 is preferably hung, for example, by a wire (150) through a hole drilled through the seed, so as to allow crystal growth in all directions with a minimum of interference from wall 102 or other materials. The hole may be drilled by a laser, a diamond or abrasive drill, or an ultrasonic drill, for example. The seed crystal 120 may alternatively be hung by tying a wire around one end of the seed.

In the case of some solvents, however, the solubility of group III nitride decreases with temperature. In this case the seed crystal 120 should be placed in the lower warmer portion of the capsule and the source material 124 in the upper colder portion of the capsule. The source material 124 is preferably placed in a porous basket 140 displaced from the baffle 110 rather than immediately contacting the baffle 110, as the latter arrangement may impede transport of fluid and nutrient through the baffle 110.

A mineralizer may also be added to the capsule 100, in order to increase the solubility of group III nitride in the solvent, either together with the source material 124 or separately. The mineralizer may comprise at least one of (i) alkali and alkaline-earth nitrides, such as Li₃N, Mg₃N₂, and Ca₃N₂; (ii) amides, such as LiNH₂, NaNH₂, and KNH₂; (iii) urea and related compounds; (iv) ammonium salts, such as NH₄F and NH₄Cl; (v) rare earth, halide, sulfide, or nitrate salts, such as CeCl₃, NaCl, Li₂S, or KNO₃; (vi) azide salts, such as NaN₃; (vii) other Li salts; (viii) halide, chalcogenide, or nitrate salts, such as NaCl, Li₂S, or KNO₃; (ix) combinations of the above; (x) compounds formed by chemical reaction of at least one of the above with any of AlN, Al, Ga, GaN, In and InN and combinations thereof; (xi) compounds formed by chemical reaction of at least two of the above with one another, such as Na₃AlF_(6 .)

In one embodiment, the mineralizer comprises at least one of HX, NH₄X, MX₃, or a compound formed by reaction of at two of these species or with ammonia, where X is a halide (F, Cl, Br, I) and M is a group III metal (B, Al, Ga, In). In one embodiment, NH₄F and NH₄Cl serve as effective mineralizers for ammonothermal GaN growth, particularly at temperatures above 550° C. and pressures above 5 kbar. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that transport occurs by reaction of HX, where NH₄X can be considered as HX dissolved in ammonia, with MN to form MX₃ and ammonia, as described by equation (1). MN+3HX=MX₃+NH₃  (1).

The transporting species is thus MX₃, presumably solvated with ammonia. In the case of NH₄F, dissolution of raw material occurs on the cold end of the cell and crystal growth occurs on the hot end of the cell. In other words, the reaction indicated schematically by equation (1) is exothermic, so that the more stable species on the right predominates at low temperatures and the equilibrium shifts to the left at higher temperatures. Consistent with this notion, at the completion of a crystal growth run the cell is found to be filled with white needles, which are identified by x-ray diffraction as comprising GaF₃(NH₃)₂ and (NH₄)₃GaF₆, whose structures are known from the literature. By contrast, in the case of NH₄Cl, dissolution of raw material occurs on the hot end of the cell and crystal growth occurs on the cold end of the cell. In other words, the reaction indicated schematically by equation (1) is endothermic, so that the more stable species on the left predominates at low temperatures and the equilibrium shifts to the right at higher temperatures. Consistent with this notion, at the completion of a crystal growth run the cell is found to be filled with white powder, which comprises mainly NH₄Cl with only traces of gallium-containing compounds.

To some extent the behavior of the mineralizers NH₄F and NH₄Cl in growth of crystals comprising gallium nitride can be understood by considering free energies of reaction of pure substances, which neglects the free energies of solvation of both HX and MX₃ and includes the lattice energy of crystalline MX₃, which of course is not present in solution. Table 1 shows selected results, limited in part by the availability of free energies of formation of some of the chemical species involved.

TABLE 1 Free energies of reaction ΔG° for selected mineralizer-transport reactions (kJ/mol). Data is from I. Barin, with a correction for the enthalpy of formation of GaN [Ranade et al., J. Phys. Chem. B 104, 4060 (2000)] GaN + 3HF = GaN + 3HCl = AlN + 3HF = AlN + 3HCl = InN + 3HCl = T (K) GaF₃ + NH₃ GaCl₃ + NH₃ AlF₃ + NH₃ AlCl₃ + NH₃ InCl₃ + NH₃ 400 −141 −34 500 −115 −12 600 −89 700 −63 −223 17 −102 800 −38 −196 35 −76 900 −13 −168 52 1000 12 −141 69 1100 37 −114 1200 61 −87

Inspecting the second column in Table 1, it is noted that the simplified thermodynamics correctly predicts the stability of the products (GaF₃+NH₃) at low temperature and the tendency for reaction (1) to shift to the left, i.e., deposition of GaN, at elevated temperatures. Comparing the second and third columns, it is noted that the simplified thermodynamics also correctly predicts the reduced tendency for gallium chloride formation compared to gallium fluoride formation. However, the very limited data on gallium chloride formation suggests that reaction (1) will shift to the left at elevated temperatures. The predicted behavior is similar to the trend with the fluoride, but is contradicted by experimental observations, as GaN crystal growth occurs on the cold end with this chemistry. It may be that the trend in the third column reverses at temperatures above 600° K, or it may be that the thermodynamics of ammonia solvation, neglected in this simplified analysis, varies enough between HF, HCl, and the gallium fluorides and chlorides to shift the overall equilibrium and trend with temperature.

The fourth and fifth columns in Table 1 give some insight into ammonothermal crystal growth of AlN, particularly by comparison with the observed theoretical and experimental trends with GaN. Comparing the fourth and second columns, we see that formation of AlF₃ is considerably more favorable than formation of GaF₃, although the stability of both decreases at elevated temperatures. Formation of may therefore be effectively irreversible at modest temperatures, and crystal growth of AlN ineffective. However, at temperatures above about 1200° K, NH₄F may serve as an effective mineralizer for AlN crystal growth. Inspecting the fifth column, we see that formation of AlCl₃ is not nearly as favorable as that of AlF₃, but appears to be roughly comparable with an extrapolation of the results for formation of GaCl₃. NH₄Cl is therefore concluded to be an effective mineralizer for ammonothermal crystal growth of AlN. The data in the fifth column suggests that AlN crystal growth would occur on the hot end. However, by analogy to the contrary behavior observed with GaN, we expect that AlN crystal growth in fact occurs at the cold end. Crystal growth at the cold end may be advantageous for control of an ammonothermal crystal growth process in that it may be easier to reduce or eliminate wall nucleation.

Comparing the fourth and fifth columns, we see that formation of a mixed halide, e.g., AlFCl₂, should be intermediate in free energy of formation compared to the pure halides. Formation of such species may be favored, due to entropy, by a dilute mixture of NH₄F in NH₄Cl as mineralizer. Thus, in one embodiment, AlN crystals are grown using a dilute mixture of NH₄F in NH₄CI as mineralizer.

Generalizing this result, if formation of a pure MX₃ transport species is too stable, from the standpoint that it forms essentially irreversibly in the desired temperature range, one may obtain improved mineralization by dilution of NH₄X in NH₄Y as mineralizer, where formation of MY₃ is less favorable than that of MX₃. Conversely, if formation of a pure MY₃ transport species is insufficiently stable, from the standpoint that it forms at very low concentrations in the desired temperature range, one may obtain improved mineralization by mixing of NH₄Y with NH₄X as mineralizer, where formation of MX₃ is more favorable than that of MY₃.

The sixth column of Table 1 suggests that NH₄Cl will be an effective mineralizer for InN crystal growth. If formation of InCl3 occurs with too strong an equilibrium constant, then one can use a mixture of NH₄CI and one or more of NH₄F, NH₄Br or NH₄I as a mineralizer.

In a preferred embodiment, ammonia is employed as the superheated fluid solvent 130 and at least one of ammonium fluoride, NH₄F, gallium fluoride, GaF₃, or at least one compound produced by chemical reactions between HF, NH₃, Ga, and GaN, is employed as the mineralizer. This combination provides the advantage of a relatively high solubility of GaN while not being overly corrosive to the capsule, particularly when the capsule is fabricated from silver. In this case the effective solubility of GaN decreases with temperature. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the inventors believe that GaN undergoes a chemical reaction with the mineralizer and solvent, forming complexes comprising gallium, fluoride, ammonium ion, and ammonia which are soluble in superheated ammonia. Formation of the complexes is reversible, with an equilibrium constant for formation that decreases with temperature so that formation of free GaN is favored at higher temperature and the effective solubility of GaN decreases with temperature. After ending a crystal growth run with this chemistry, the capsule is typically found to be filled with white needle-shaped crystals. X-ray diffraction analysis indicates that the crystals comprise GaF₃(NH₃)₂ and (NH₄)₃GaF₆, whose structures are known from the literature.

Optionally, a dopant source is also added to capsule 100, in order to provide n-type, semi-insulating, p-type, magnetic, luminescent, or optically absorbing crystals comprising gallium nitride, or to modify the bandgap. Adventitious impurities such as oxygen or carbon will otherwise normally render the crystals n-type. Dopants such as O, Si, or Ge (n-type), Be, Mg or Zn (p-type may be added as impurities in the source group III nitride. Alternatively, the dopants may be added as metals, salts, or inorganic compounds, such as Si, Si₃N₄, InN, SiCl₄, BeF₂, Mg₃N₂, MgF₂, Zn, ZnF₂, or Zn₃N₂. The addition of Al and/or In will increase or decrease the bandgap with respect to pure GaN. Such doped crystals will be referred to herein as gallium nitride, even though they may contain significant levels of Al and/or In. GaN crystals with total dopant concentrations below about 10¹⁵-10¹⁶ cm⁻³ are expected to be semi-insulating. Typically, however, the concentration of unintentional impurities is higher than 10¹⁶ cm⁻³ and the crystals are n-type. Semi-insulating GaN crystals may be obtained by doping with at least one of Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, or Cu. In a preferred embodiment, semi-insulating GaN crystals are produced by doping with Fe or Co. Magnetic GaN crystals may be obtained by doping with certain transition metals, such as, but not limited to, Mn. Luminescent GaN crystals may be obtained by doping with certain transition or rare-earth metals such as Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zr, Hf, Pr, Eu, Er, or Tm. The transition-metal or rare-earth dopants may be added as impurities in the source GaN or as metals in elemental form, salts, or inorganic compounds, such as Fe, Co, CoF₂, CrN, or EuF₃, either alone or in combination with one or more additional dopants such as O, Si, Mg, Zn, C, or H. Such dopants may be present in concentrations raging from about 10¹⁵ cm⁻³ to about 10²¹ cm⁻³ in the source GaN. Depending on the identity and concentration of the dopant, the GaN crystal may be optically absorbing; i.e., black. For example, heavily Co-doped GaN crystals are black in color and produce no visible photoluminescence upon irradiation with a nitrogen laser.

In one embodiment in order to keep the concentration of undesired dopants, such as oxygen, to an acceptable level, the impurity levels in the raw materials (source gallium nitride, mineralizer, and solvent) and capsules are limited to appropriately low levels. For example, an oxygen concentration below 3×10¹⁸ cm⁻³ in the grown crystals may be achieved by holding the total oxygen content in the raw materials and capsule below 15 parts per million, with respect to the weight of the final crystal, and an impurity level below 3×10¹⁷ cm⁻³ may be achieved by holding the total oxygen content in the raw materials and capsule below 1.5 parts per million.

The presence of oxygen in the system (raw materials, vessel) is deleterious to the ammonothermal growth of nitrides. Oxygen contents above 10¹⁸ cm⁻³, above 10¹⁹ cm⁻³, and even above 10²⁰ cm⁻³ have been observed in ammonothermally-grown GaN in the prior art. In one embodiment of the invention, it is noted that the role of oxygen is more deleterious in the case of growth of both AlN and InN than it is with GaN. From the free energy of formation of pure substances, the ease with which ammonia may reduce the group III metal nitride may be illustrated in Table 2 below. Data is from I. Barin, with a correction for the enthalpy of formation of GaN [Ranade et al., J. Phys. Chem. B 104, 4060 (2000)]

TABLE 2 Free energies of reaction ΔG° for selected oxide-reduction reactions (kJ/mol). Al₂O₃ + 2NH₃ = Ga₂O₃ + 2NH₃ = In₂O₃ + 2NH₃ = T (K) 2AlN + 3H₂O 2GaN + 3H₂O 2InN + 3H₂O 800 269 16 127 900 252 1 111 1000 236 −14 96 1100 219 −29 80

As illustrated, at temperatures of approximately 900K and above, ammonia can readily reduce gallium oxide to gallium nitride in qualitative agreement with the observation that GaN may be grown ammonothermally even when large quantities of oxygen or oxide are present in the raw materials. However, ammonia does not readily reduce either aluminum oxide or indium oxide at any of these temperatures, which is surprising in the sense that the thermodynamics of a given reaction type typically vary monotonically as one passes down a column in the Periodic Table (Al—Ga—In). Accordingly, improved results obtain when the oxygen content of the raw materials is less than 1%, or even further when the oxygen content is less than 0.1%, less than 0.01%, less than 0.001% (10 ppm), or less than 1 ppm.

In one embodiment, in order to reduce the concentration of undesired dopants, such as oxygen, to an acceptable level, one or more getters are also added to the capsule. For non-fluoride mineralizers, such as NH₄Cl, suitable getters include alkaline earth metals, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Y, Zr, Nb, Hf, Ta, W, rare earth metals, and their nitrides or halides. When NH₄F, HF, GaF₃, and/or their reaction products with NH₃ and GaN, are used as mineralizers, also referred to herein as acid fluoride mineralizers, highly reactive metals will tend to form fluorides which are then unreactive with water or oxygen in the system. However, compounds of metals which have the property that the free energy of reaction of the metal fluoride with water to form the metal oxide and HF is more negative under crystal growth conditions than the corresponding reaction of GaF₃ with water may be used as getters. Suitable getters for use with acid fluoride mineralizers include CrF₃, ZrF₄, HfF₄, VF₄, NbF₅, TaF₅, and WF₆.

In one embodiment, the mineralizer may be present at a concentration between 0.5 and 5 mole percent with respect to the solvent. The inventors have found that acid mineralizers, for example, NH₄F and NH₄Cl, may be effective at concentrations above any one of 0.5 mole percent, 1 mole percent, 2 mole percent, 5 mole percent, 10 mole percent, 20 mole percent, 50 mole percent, or more in ammonia. In the case of NH₄F, the concentration of dissolved gallium nitride, that is, the concentration of gallium present in complexes that may be believed to be dissolved under crystalline composition growth conditions, may be approximately proportional to the mineralizer concentration at values at least as high as 25 mole percent, and that gallium nitride crystalline composition growth may be very effective under these conditions. The use of mineralizer concentrations above 20 mole percent in ammonia has the added benefit of reducing the pressure of the solvent at a given fill level, thereby reducing the mechanical demands on the pressure vessel.

The capsule 100 is filled with a solvent 130 that will comprise a superheated fluid under processing conditions, such as, for example, ammonia, hydrazine, methylamine, ethylenediamine, melamine, or other nitrogen-containing fluid. In a preferred embodiment ammonia is employed as the solvent 130. Of the free volume in the capsule, i.e., the volume not occupied by the source material, seed(s), and baffle), between 25% and 100%, or preferably between 70% and 95%, is filled with solvent 130 and the capsule 100 is sealed.

Depending upon the concentration of the mineralizer dissolved into the superheated fluid solvent, under crystal growth conditions the superheated fluid solution can be either supercritical or subcritical. For example, ammonia has a critical temperature and pressure of 132° C. and 113 bar, respectively. The corresponding quantities for NH₄F are expected to be similar to the values for NH₄Cl, which are about 882° C. and 1635 bar. A solution of NH₄F in ammonia may be expected to have a critical point at a temperature and pressure intermediate between the critical temperatures and pressures of the constituents NH₄F and ammonia. The presence of group III-complexes in the solution will further modify the equation of state and critical point of the superheated fluid.

Methods for filling and sealing the capsule are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/683,659, to D'Evelyn et al. filed on Jan. 31, 2002, mentioned above, for example. For example, the capsule 100 may be cooled to a temperature at which the solvent 130 is either a liquid or solid. Once the capsule 100 is sufficiently cooled, a solvent source is placed in fluid communication with the open chamber of the capsule 100 and solvent is introduced into the chamber, which is open at this point, by either condensation or injection. After a desired amount of solvent 130 is introduced into the open chamber, the chamber is sealed. The chamber may be sealed, for example, by pinching off or collapsing a portion of the wall 102 to form a weld.

The sealed capsule 100 is placed in a vessel capable of generating temperatures between about 550° C. and about 3000° C., or preferably between about 550° C. and about 1200° C. and a pressure between about 5 kbar and about 80 kbar, or preferably between about 5 kbar and about 20 kbar. An exemplary pressure vessel is described in U.S. application Ser. No. 09/683,658, to D'Evelyn et al. filed on Jan. 31, 2002, and entitled “Improved Pressure Vessel,” incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIG. 2 illustrates a pressure vessel 210, with enclosed capsule 100. The pressure vessel 210 illustrated in FIG. 2 comprises a hydraulic press with a die. Alternatively, the pressure vessel may comprise a multi-anvil press or a die and reinforced end flanges as described in U.S. application Ser. No. 09/683,658 mentioned above.

The pressure vessel 210 contains a pressure medium 214 enclosed by compression die 204 and top and bottom seals 220 and 222. The pressure medium may be, for example, NaCl, NaBr or NaF.

The pressure vessel 210 includes a wattage control system 216 for controlling the heating of the capsule 100. The wattage control system 216 includes a heating element 218 to provide heating to the capsule 100, and a controller 222 for controlling the heating element 218. The wattage control system 216 also preferably includes at least one temperature sensor 224 proximate to the capsule 100 for generating temperature signals associated with the capsule 100.

The pressure vessel 210 is preferably arranged to provide a temperature distribution, i.e., the temperature as a function of the position within the capsule chamber, within the capsule chamber, including a temperature gradient within the capsule 100. In one embodiment, the temperature gradient may be achieved by placing the capsule 100 closer to one end of the cell (the region within the pressure vessel 210) than the other. Alternatively, the temperature gradient is produced by providing at least one heating element 218 having a non-uniform resistance along its length. Non-uniform resistance of the at least one heating element 218 may be provided, for example, by providing at least one heating element 218 having a non-uniform thickness, by perforating the at least one heating element 218 at selected points, or by providing at least one heating element 218 that comprises a laminate of at least two materials of differing resistivity at selected points along the length of the at least one heating element 218. In one embodiment, the at least one temperature sensor 224 comprises at least two independent temperature sensors provided to measure and control the temperature gradient between the opposite ends 230, 232 of the capsule 100. In one embodiment, closed-loop temperature control is provided for at least two locations within the cell. The at least one heating element 218 may also comprise multiple zones which may be individually powered to achieve the desired temperature gradient between two ends of the capsule 100. An exemplary apparatus and method for providing independent temperature control of at least two locations within a high pressure cell is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 60/435,189 “High pressure/high temperature apparatus with improved temperature control for crystal growth,” to D'Evelyn et al. filed on Dec. 18, 2002, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The capsule 100 is heated to the growth temperature, preferably between about 550° C. and 1200° C., at an average rate between about 1° C./hr and 1000° C./hr. A temperature gradient may be present in the capsule, due to asymmetric placement of the capsule in the cell, non-symmetric heating, or the like, as described above with respect to the pressure cell 210. This temperature gradient has the effect of creating a supersaturation throughout the heating sequence, which the inventors have found promotes spontaneous nucleation.

In an embodiment of the present invention the temperature gradient at the growth temperature is initially held small, less than about 25° C. and preferably less than about 10° C., for a period between about 1 minute and 2 hours, in order to allow the system to equilibrate in an equilibrium stage. The temperature gradient as used in this application is the difference in the temperature at the ends of the capsule, for example, where the control thermocouples are located. The temperature gradient at the position of the seed crystal 120 or nucleation center with respect to the temperature at the position of the source material 124 is likely to be somewhat smaller.

Optionally, the temperature gradient is set in the equilibrium stage to be opposite in sign to that where crystal growth occurs on the nucleation center (i.e., so that etching occurs at the nucleation center and growth occurs on the source material) so as to etch away any spontaneously-nucleated crystals in the region of the capsule where the nucleation center is provided that may have formed during heating. In other words, if the crystal growth occurs for a positive temperature gradient, then the temperature gradient is set to be negative, and vice versa.

After this equilibration period, a growth period may be provided where the temperature gradient is increased in magnitude and has a sign such that growth occurs at the seed crystal at a greater rate. For example the temperature gradient may be increased at a rate between about 0.01° C./hr and 25° C./hr, to a larger value where growth is faster. During the crystal growth the temperature gradient may be held at a magnitude of between 5° C. and 300° C. and may be adjusted either upward or downward during growth. Optionally, the temperature gradient may be changed to have a sign opposite to the sign where growth occurs at the seed crystal. The sign of the gradient may be reversed one or more additional times in order to alternately etch away any spontaneously-formed nuclei and promote growth on one or more nucleation centers or seed crystals 120. The HPHT conditions are maintained for a length of time sufficient to dissolve a substantial portion of the source group III nitride and precipitate it onto at least one crystal comprising gallium nitride, boule comprising gallium nitride, or crystal seed comprising gallium nitride.

At the conclusion of the growth period the temperature of the capsule may be ramped down at a rate between about 1° C./hr and 1000° C./hr, and preferably between about 1° C./hr and 300° C./hr so as to minimize thermal shock to the grown crystal 132. The cell, including the capsule and pressure medium, is removed from the pressure vessel 210 and the capsule 100 is removed from the cell.

The solvent 130 may be conveniently removed by chilling the capsule to reduce the vapor pressure of the solvent below 1 bar, puncturing the capsule, and then allowing it to warm so that the solvent evaporates. The capsule is cut open and the grown crystal(s) removed. The crystal(s) may be washed by an appropriate wash, such as, for example, at least one of water, alcohol or other organic solvent, and mineral acids to remove mineralizer.

In an alternative embodiment, a high quality seed crystal, substantially free of tilt boundaries and with a dislocation density below about 10⁴ cm⁻², is used as a substrate for deposition of a thick film of AlInGaN by another crystal growth method. In one embodiment, the other crystal growth method comprises hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE).

The quality of the single crystal may be indicated by characterization techniques, such as photoluminescence, which occurs at the band edge at room temperature for GaN. The crystal may be further processed and sliced into one or more wafers, lapped, polished, and chemically polished. Methods for slicing include sawing with a wire saw or with an annular saw and are well known in the art. Lapping and polishing may be performed with a slurry containing diamond, silicon carbide, alumina, or other hard particles. Polishing may leave lattice damage in the group III nitride wafer that may be removed by a number of methods, including chemical mechanical polishing, dry etching by reactive ion etching (RIE), high density inductively-coupled plasma (ICP) plasma etching, electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) plasma etching, and chemically assisted ion beam etching (CAIBE). The polished wafer has an rms surface roughness below about 1 nm over a lateral area of at least 10×10 mm². Preferably, the surface roughness is below 0.5 nm over a lateral area of at least 10×10 mm². The wafer or substrate preferably has a thickness between about 0.01 and 10 mm, most preferably between about 0.05 and 5 mm. The surface of the wafer is preferably flat to less than 1 micron. The front and back surfaces of the wafer are preferably parallel to better than 1°. In one embodiment, the crystallographic orientation of the front of the wafer is within about 10° of one of the (0001) orientation, the (000 1) orientation, the (10 10) orientation, the (11 20) orientation, and the (10 11) orientation. In another embodiment, the orientation of the front of the wafer is within about 5° of one of these orientations.

The group III nitride is typically ground to a round or square shape, with one or more additional flats to indicate the crystallographic orientation. In one embodiment 700, the edge of the GaN wafer is simply ground, as shown schematically in FIG. 7( a). However, the inventors have found that GaN crystals or wafers crack easily, and a GaN wafer with a simply ground edge is particularly susceptible to chipping and cracking. In a preferred embodiment 710, a chamfer is ground on at least one of the front and back surfaces, as shown schematically in FIG. 7( b). The chamfer is ground on the edge of the wafer using apparatus that is well known in the art. The depth of the chamfer (dimension “a” in FIG. 7( b)) is typically between about 10 μm and 0.2 t (dimension “t” in FIG. 7( b)), where t is the thickness of the wafer. The width of the chamfer (dimension “b” in FIG. 7( b)) is typically between a and 5 a. If both the top (side on which epitaxy will be performed) and the bottom of the wafer are chamfered, the larger chamfer is typically placed on the bottom. A slight curvature is preferably present at the edges of the chamfered portions rather than sharp edges. In addition to reducing the tendency for the wafer to be chipped or cracked during handling, the chamfer also reduces the likelihood of “crowning” or poor morphology of epitaxially-grown AlInGaN near the periphery of the wafer. In a still more preferred embodiment 720, the edge of the wafer is rounded, as shown schematically in FIG. 7( c). The radius of curvature of the top edge (dimension “r₁” in FIG. 7( c)) the wafer is typically between 10 μm and 0.5 t (dimension “t” in FIG. 7( c)), where t is the thickness of the wafer. The angle Θ between the inside edge of the rounded portion and the top surface of the wafer is preferably less than 30°. The radius of curvature (dimension “r₂” in FIG. 7( c)) of the bottom edge of the wafer is typically greater than r₁, and also forms an angle with the bottom surface of the wafer that is preferably less than 30°. The thickness of the unrounded edge (dimension “w” in FIG. 7( c)) of the wafer may be zero and is preferably less than 0.5 t.

This single crystal comprising gallium nitride, and wafers formed therefrom, are useful as substrates for electronic and optoelectronic devices.

The crystal may be characterized by standard methods that are known in the art. For determining the dislocation density, Cathodoluminescence (CL) and etch pit density are convenient. CL imaging provides a non-destructive measure of dislocation density, and requires no sample preparation. Dislocations are non-radiative recombination centers in group III nitride, and therefore appear in CL as dark spots. One can simply measure the concentration of dark spots in CL images to determine the dislocation density.

A second convenient method, which may be more definitive in some cases, is etch pit density. One such etch method, for example, is a vapor-phase HCl etch, as described by T. Hino et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 3421 (2000) incorporated by reference.

Both of these methods were applied to the Ga face of a sample of commercial-grade HVPE GaN dislocation densities (dark-spot densities or etch pit densities) of 1-2×10⁷ cm⁻² were obtained, in excellent agreement with the values reported by others on similar material and those values shown in FIG. 9.

The optical absorption and emission properties of the grown crystal comprising gallium nitride can be determined by optical absorption, scattering, and photoluminescence spectroscopies, as are well known in the art. The electrical properties can be determined by Van der Pauw and Hall measurements, by mercury-probe CV, and by hot-probe techniques.

The crystal may be sliced into one or more wafers by methods that are well known in the art. The crystal or wafer comprising gallium nitride is useful as a substrate for epitaxial Al_(x)In_(y)Ga_(1-x-y)N films where 0≦x≦1, 0≦y≦1 and 0≦x+y≦1, light emitting diodes, laser diodes, photodetectors, avalanche photodiodes, transistors, diodes, and other optoelectronic and electronic devices. Epitaxial GaN or Al_(x)In_(y)Ga_(1-x-y)N layers, where 0≦x, y, x+y≦1, deposited on wafers fabricated from the bulk crystals comprising gallium nitride described herein will similarly be substantially free of tilt boundaries and will have a dislocation density below 10⁴ cm⁻², preferably below 10³ cm⁻², and, even more preferably, below 100 cm⁻². Exemplary methods of forming homoepitaxial light emitting diodes and laser diodes on a GaN substrate are described, for example, in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/694,690, filed Oct. 23, 2000 by D'Evelyn et al., “Homoepitaxial GaN-based Light Emitting Device and Method for Producing,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Exemplary methods of forming homoepitaxial photodetectors on a GaN substrate are described, for example, in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/839,941, filed Apr. 20, 2001 by D'Evelyn et al., entitled “Homoepitaxial GaN-Based Photodetector and Method for Producing,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Exemplary methods of forming avalanche photodiodes on a GaN substrate are described, for example, in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/314,986, filed Dec. 10, 2002 by Sandvik et al., entitled “Avalanche Photodiode for Use in Harsh Environments,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Due to the substantial absence of tilt boundaries and the low dislocation density of the substrate, the homoepitaxial light-emitting device is substantially free of tilt boundaries and, for a device area up to about 10⁴ μm², or up to about 9×10⁴ μm², or up to 1 mm², most devices are substantially free of threading dislocations.

The above described embodiments provide improved nucleation control by including an equilibration period in the temperature program, in which the temperature gradient is substantially reduced, or even set to be zero or negative, with respect to the gradient during crystal growth, and by hanging the seed crystal within the growth chamber. The improved crystal growth method provides high quality, large area crystals comprising gallium nitride.

A GaN single crystal formed by the above method was characterized using etch pit density measurements, photoluminescence, and optical absorption techniques. The single crystal formed is characterized by a dislocation density below 100 cm⁻¹, a photoluminescence spectrum which peaks at a photon energy of between about 3.38 and about 3.41 eV at a crystal temperature of 300° K, and has an optical absorption coefficient below 5 cm⁻¹ for wavelengths between 700 nm (red) and 465 nm (blue).

A GaN single crystal formed by the above method was characterized by infrared transmission spectroscopy and by Raman spectroscopy. In contrast to GaN grown by other methods, the GaN grown by the method described herein had several sharp absorption peaks in the range of 3050 to 3300 cm⁻¹, with a maximum absorption near 3175 cm⁻¹, as shown in FIG. 8. The crystal was annealed to 750° C. in high purity nitrogen for 30 min and the infrared spectrum was re-measured. The absorption peaks in the range of 3050 to 3300 cm⁻¹ were essentially unchanged, as shown in FIG. 8, indicating a high stability of the species responsible for the absorption peaks. Based on predictions of vibrational frequencies of 3100-3470 cm⁻¹ for V_(Ga)H₁-V_(Ga)H₄ (which may overestimate the actual frequencies by about 200 cm⁻¹) and the observation of infrared absorption features at 3020-3050 cm⁻¹ and at 3140 cm⁻¹ in hydrogen-implanted GaN [M. G. Weinstein et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 1703 (1998)], we believe that the absorption peaks between 3150 and 3200 cm⁻¹ in our samples correspond to V_(Ga)H₃ and V_(Ga)H₄, that the absorption peaks observed between 3000 and 3150 cm⁻¹ in both our crystal and hydrogen-implanted GaN correspond to V_(Ga)H₁ and V_(Ga)H₂, and that other minor peaks may be associated with the presence of other impurities or defects. Thus, the presence of an infrared absorption feature near 3175 cm⁻¹ in GaN crystals grown by the method described herein indicates passivation of gallium vacancies, and the persistence of the infrared feature upon high temperature annealing indicates that this passivation is quite stable. Depending on the concentration of hydrogenated gallium vacancies in the GaN crystal, the absorbance per unit thickness of the 3175 cm⁻¹ peak will lie between about 0.01 and 200 cm⁻¹.

Additional evidence for the passivation of point defects in a GaN crystal grown by the method described herein was obtained by Raman spectroscopy. A total of five peaks were observed in two configurations between 400 and 800 cm⁻¹. The peaks, with their respective assignments given in brackets, were observed at 530 cm⁻¹ (A₁(TO)], 558 cm⁻¹ [E₁ (TO)], 569 cm⁻¹ [E₂ (high)], 734 cm⁻¹ [A₁(LO)], and 742 cm⁻¹ [E₁(TO)]. These values are all within a few cm⁻¹ of accepted values for pure GaN reported in the literature. Significantly, a broad peak associated with phonon-plasmon coupling was not observed. The observation of unshifted LO modes and the absence of a phonon-plasmon mode indicates a carrier concentration below 10¹⁷ cm⁻³, based on Raman measurements reported in the literature on GaN with carrier concentrations between 10¹⁶ cm⁻³ and 10²⁰ cm⁻³. The total impurity concentration in this crystal was above 10¹⁹ cm⁻³. The drastic reduction in carrier concentration relative to the impurity concentration indicates a high degree of compensation, most likely due to hydrogen.

The incorporated hydrogen is believed to be benign or possibly even beneficial. Typical gallium nitride crystal growth methods do not provide passivation of gallium vacancies by hydrogenation, even if hydrogen is in the growth system. For example, infrared transmission spectroscopy on 300-400 mm thick GaN samples grown by hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) revealed weak absorption features near 2850 and 2915 cm⁻¹ associated with another defect, but no absorption features between 3100 and 3500 cm⁻¹ that could be assigned to hydrogenated Ga vacancies were observed in the HVPE gallium nitride material.

Within the visible spectrum, the boule comprising gallium nitride typically exhibits substantial transparency. The optical absorption coefficient for nominally undoped crystals is generally less than 5 cm⁻¹ between 465 nm and 700 nm. Doped crystals exhibit similarly low absorption, although some free carrier absorption may be introduced at high carrier concentrations. Moreover, dopants, substitutional or interstitial impurities, vacancy complexes, or other point defects may introduce narrow peaks of higher absorption within the visible range. Such point defect-related narrow absorption peaks typically do not, however, significantly reduce the substantial transparency of the crystal in the visible for purposes such as backside extraction of emitted light.

In the case where a boule comprising gallium nitride is grown using at least one of NH₄F, GaF₃, or other compounds obtainable by reaction of Ga, GaN, NH₃, and HF, as mineralizer, the boule may contain at least about 0.04 ppm fluorine, and typically between about 0.04 and 1 ppm fluorine. By contrast, crystals comprising gallium nitride grown with fluorine-free mineralizers typically contain less than 0.02 ppm fluorine. As with the case of incorporated hydrogen, the incorporated fluorine is believed to be benign or possibly even beneficial. Bond lengths to fluorine in molecules or solids are typically only slightly larger than the corresponding bonds to hydrogen, so that fluorine may play a similar role passivating defects.

After the crystal comprising gallium nitride has been formed, the crystal or boule is further processed and sliced into one or more wafers, lapped, polished, and chemically polished. The wafer or substrate preferably has a thickness between about 0.01 and 10 mm, most preferably between about 0.05 and 5 mm, and is useful as a substrate for the device fabrication. In one embodiment, the wafer comprises n-type GaN, with an electrical resistivity less than about 100 Ω-cm, more preferably less than about 10 Ω-cm, or even more preferably less than about 1 Ω-cm. In another embodiment, the wafer comprises p-type GaN, and in still another embodiment the wafer comprises semi-insulating GaN. The substrate is then polished to a mirror finish using mechanical-polishing techniques that are known in the art. Subsurface damage may remain after the polishing process. This damage may be removed by several methods that are known in the art, including chemically assisted ion beam etching, reactive ion etching, chemo-mechanical polishing, and photoelectrochemical or wet chemical etching. The residual damage may also be removed by heating the wafer to a temperature between about 700° C. and 1500° C. in a nitrogen-containing atmosphere, such as, for example, N₂ or ammonia, at a partial pressure between about 10⁻⁸ mbar and 20,000 bar. The substrate preferably has a thickness between about 0.01 mm and 10 mm, most preferably between about 0.05 mm and 5 mm.

EXAMPLES

The following Comparative Examples (Comparative Examples 1-3) are provided for comparison to the Examples (Examples 1-4). The Comparative Examples do not constitute prior art to the present invention, but are provided for comparison purposes.

Comparative Example 1

0.1 g of NH₄F mineralizer was placed in the bottom of a 0.5 inch diameter silver capsule. A baffle with 5.0% open area was placed in the middle portion of the capsule, and 0.31 g of polycrystalline GaN source material was placed in the upper half of the capsule. The capsule was then enclosed within a filler/sealing assembly together with a 0.583 inch diameter steel ring. The capsule and filler/sealing assembly were transferred to a gas manifold and filled with 0.99 g of ammonia. Next, a plug was inserted into the open top end of the capsule, such that a cold weld was formed between the silver capsule and silver plug and the steel ring surrounded the plug and provided reinforcement. The capsule was then removed from the filler/sealing assembly and inserted in a zero stroke high pressure high temperature (HPHT) apparatus. The cell was heated to approximately 700° C. and held at this temperature for 55 hours, with a temperature gradient of approximately 85° C. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, numerous spontaneously-nucleated crystals were observed at the bottom of the capsule. One crystal approximately 0.36 mm in diameter was selected at random and etched in 10% HCl in Ar at 625° C. for 30 min. No etch pits were observed. The area of the exposed c-face was approximately 5.3×10⁻⁴ cm², indicating that the etch pit density was less than (1/(5.3×10⁻⁴ cm²)) or 1900 cm⁻². By contrast, the identical etching treatment was applied to a 200 μm-thick piece of GaN grown by hydride/halide vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE), and an etch pit density of 2×10⁷ cm⁻² was observed on the Ga face. The observed etch pit density of the HVPE-grown sample was in good agreement with FIG. 9 for material that was grown to a thickness of about 300 μm before being lapped and polished.

Comparative Example 2

Three seeds, weighing 3-4 mg each, were placed in the bottom of a 0.5 inch diameter silver capsule along with 0.10 g of NH₄F mineralizer. A baffle with 5.0% open area was placed in the middle portion of the capsule, and 0.34 g of polycrystalline GaN source material was placed in the upper half of the capsule. The capsule was then enclosed within a filler/sealing assembly together with a 0.675 inch diameter steel ring. The capsule and filler/sealing assembly were transferred to the gas manifold and filled with 1.03 g of ammonia. Next, the plug was inserted into the open top end of the capsule, such that a cold weld was formed between the silver capsule and silver plug and the steel ring surrounded the plug and provided reinforcement. The capsule was then removed from the filler/sealing assembly and inserted in a zero stroke HPHT apparatus. The cell was heated at about 15° C./min to approximately 500° C., then at 0.046° C./min to 700° C., and held at the latter temperature for 6 hours, with a temperature gradient of approximately 28° C. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, numerous spontaneously-nucleated crystals were observed at the bottom of the capsule and, despite the very slow heating rate, very little growth on the seeds occurred, relative to growth on spontaneously-nucleated crystals.

Comparative Example 3

A GaN seed, weighing 10.4 mg, was placed in the bottom of a 0.5 inch diameter silver capsule along with 0.04 g of NH₄F mineralizer. A baffle with 5.0% open area was placed in the middle portion of the capsule, and 0.74 g of polycrystalline GaN source material was placed in the upper half of the capsule. The capsule was then enclosed within a filler/sealing assembly together with a 0.675 inch diameter steel ring. The capsule and filler/sealing assembly were transferred to the gas manifold and filled with 1.14 g of ammonia. Next, the plug was inserted into the open top end of the capsule, such that a cold weld was formed between the silver capsule and silver plug and the steel ring surrounded the plug and provided reinforcement. The capsule was then removed from the filler/sealing assembly and inserted in a zero stroke HPHT apparatus. The cell was heated at about 15° C./min to approximately 500° C., then at 0.05° C./min to 680° C., and held at the latter temperature for 53 hours, with a temperature gradient of approximately 70° C. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, numerous spontaneously-nucleated crystals were observed at the bottom of the capsule despite the very slow heating rate. The seed did grow significantly, to a weight of 41.7 mg and a diameter of about 2 mm. However, the weight of spontaneously-nucleated crystals was more than 10× the weight increase of the seed.

Example 1

A small hole was drilled by a high-power laser through a GaN seed crystal weighing 19.7 mg. The seed was hung by a 0.13-mm silver wire from a silver baffle with a 35% open area and placed in the lower half of a 0.5 inch diameter silver capsule along with 0.10 g of NH₄F mineralizer. 0.74 g of polycrystalline GaN source material was placed in the upper half of the capsule. The capsule was then enclosed within a filler/sealing assembly together with a 0.583 inch diameter steel ring. The capsule and filler/sealing assembly were transferred to a gas manifold and filled with 0.99 g of ammonia. Next, the plug was inserted into the open top end of the capsule, such that a cold weld was formed between the silver capsule and silver plug and the steel ring surrounded the plug and provided reinforcement. The capsule was then removed from the filler/sealing assembly and inserted in a zero stroke HPHT apparatus. The cell was heated at a rate of about 11° C./min until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 660° C., as measured by type K thermocouples. The current through the top half of the heater was then increased until the temperature gradient ΔT decreased to zero. After holding at ΔT=0 for 1 hour, the temperature of the top half of the capsule was decreased at 5° C./hr until ΔT increased to approximately 35° C., and the temperatures were held at these values for 78 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the seed weight was observed to have increased to 33.4 mg. The crystal was characterized by photoluminescence, using a 266 nm excitation (frequency-quadrupled YAG). The spectra at several temperatures are shown in FIG. 3. Specifically the crystal sample was characterized by photoluminescence at temperatures of 5 K, 20 K, 77 K and 300 K. At all temperatures in the range of 5K-300 K, the luminescence peak occurs between 3.38 and 3.45 eV.

Example 2

A GaN seed crystal weighing 12.6 mg, obtained from a previous run, was hung through a laser-drilled hole by a 0.13-mm silver wire from a silver baffle with a 35% open area and placed in the lower half of a 0.5 inch diameter silver capsule. 0.10 g of NH₄F mineralizer and 1.09 g of polycrystalline GaN source material were placed in the upper half of the capsule. The capsule was then enclosed within a filler/sealing assembly together with a 0.583 inch diameter steel ring. The capsule and filler/sealing assembly were transferred to the gas manifold and filled with 0.95 g of ammonia. Next, the plug was inserted into the open top end of the capsule, such that a cold weld was formed between the silver capsule and silver plug and the steel ring surrounded the plug and provided reinforcement. The capsule was then removed from the filler/sealing assembly and inserted in a zero stroke HPHT apparatus. The cell was heated at a rate of about 11° C./min until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 640° C., as measured by type K thermocouples. The current through the top half of the heater was then increased until the temperature gradient ΔT decreased to zero. After holding at ΔT=0 for 1 hour, the temperature of the top half of the capsule was decreased at 5° C./hr until ΔT increased to approximately 50° C., and the temperatures were held at these values for 98 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the seed had grown to a weight of 24.3 mg. The crystal was then etched in 10% HCl in Ar at 625° C. for 30 min. Some etch pits were observed on the c-face above the region of the seed, with an etch pit density of about 10⁶ cm⁻². However, the areas that grew laterally with respect to the seed were free of etch pits. The area of newly laterally-grown GaN was approximately 3.2×10⁻² cm², indicating that the etch pit density was less than (1/3.2×10⁻² cm²) or 32 cm⁻².

Example 3

Two GaN seeds, weighing 48.4 mg and 36.6 mg and obtained from a previous run, were hung through laser-drilled holes by a 0.13-mm silver wire from a silver baffle with a 35% open area and placed in the lower half of a 0.5 inch diameter silver capsule. 0.10 g of NH₄F mineralizer and 1.03 g of polycrystalline GaN source material were placed in the upper half of the capsule. The capsule was then enclosed within a filler/sealing assembly together with a 0.583 inch diameter steel ring. The capsule and filler/sealing assembly were transferred to the gas manifold and filled with 1.08 g of ammonia. Next, the plug was inserted into the open top end of the capsule, such that a cold weld was formed between the silver capsule and silver plug and the steel ring surrounded the plug and provided reinforcement. The capsule was then removed from the filler/sealing assembly and inserted in a zero stroke HPHT apparatus. The cell was heated at about 11° C./min until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 642° C., as measured by type K thermocouples. The current through the top half of the heater was then increased until the temperature gradient ΔT decreased to zero. After holding at ΔT=0 for 1 hour, the temperature of the top half of the capsule was decreased at 5° C./hr until ΔT increased to approximately 30° C., and the temperatures were held at these values for 100 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the seeds had grown to a weight of 219.8 mg. A piece broke off from the smaller of the two crystals and was selected for analysis. An optical transmission spectrum of the crystal was measured using a Cary 500i spectrometer. The transmission was greater than 60% for wavelengths ranging from red (700 cm⁻¹) to blue (465 cm⁻¹). Based on the index of refraction for GaN [G Yu et al., Applied Physics Letters 70, 3209 (1997)] and the thickness of the crystal, 0.206 mm, the optical absorption coefficient was less than 5 cm⁻¹ over the same wavelength range. The crystal was determined to have n-type electrical conductivity by means of a hot-point probe measurement. The crystal was then etched in 10% HCl in Ar at 625° C. for 30 min. The entire crystal was free of etch pits. The area of the c-face of the crystal was approximately 4.4×10⁻² cm², indicating that the etch pit density was less than (1/4.4×10⁻² cm²) or 23 cm⁻².

Example 4

A GaN seed weighing 25.3 mg, obtained from a previous run, was hung through a laser-drilled hole by a 0.13-mm silver wire from a silver baffle with a 35% open area and placed in the lower half of a 0.5 inch diameter silver capsule. 0.10 g of NH₄F mineralizer and 0.98 g of polycrystalline GaN source material were placed in the upper half of the capsule. The capsule was then enclosed within a filler/sealing assembly together with a 0.583 inch diameter steel ring. The capsule and filler/sealing assembly were transferred to the gas manifold and filled with 1.07 g of ammonia. Next, the plug was inserted into the open top end of the capsule, such that a cold weld was formed between the silver capsule and silver plug and the steel ring surrounded the plug and provided reinforcement. The capsule was then removed from the filler/sealing assembly and inserted in a zero stroke HPHT apparatus. The cell was heated at about 11° C./min until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 648° C., as measured by type K thermocouples. The current through the top half of the heater was then increased until the temperature gradient ΔT decreased to 3° C. After holding at ΔT=3° C. for 1 hour, the temperature of the top half of the capsule was decreased at 5° C./hr until ΔT increased to approximately 30° C., then decreased further at 2.5° C./hr until ΔT increased to approximately 60° C. and the temperatures were held at these values for 20 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the seed had grown to a weight of 40.2 mg. The crystal was then etched in 50% HNO₃ for 30 min. A row of etch pits was observed on the c-face above the interface between the seed and new, laterally-grown material. However, the remaining areas of newly-grown GaN were free of etch pits. The area of pit-free newly grown GaN was approximately 6.9×10⁻² cm², indicating that the etch pit density was less than (1/6.9×10⁻² cm²) or 14 cm⁻².

Example 5

A GaN seed weighing 13.5 mg, grown by HVPE, was hung through a laser-drilled hole by a 0.13-mm silver wire from a silver baffle with a 35% open area and placed in the lower half of a 0.5 inch diameter silver capsule. 0.10 g of NH₄F mineralizer, 0.031 g of CoF₂, and 0.304 g of polycrystalline GaN source material were placed in the upper half of the capsule. The capsule was then enclosed within a filler/sealing assembly together with a 0.583 inch diameter steel ring. The capsule and filler/sealing assembly were transferred to the gas manifold and filled with 1.01 g of ammonia. Next, the plug was inserted into the open top end of the capsule, such that a cold weld was formed between the silver capsule and silver plug and the steel ring surrounded the plug and provided reinforcement. The capsule was then removed from the filler/sealing assembly and inserted in a zero stroke HPHT apparatus. The cell was heated at about 11° C./min until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 635° C., as measured by type K thermocouples, and the temperatures were held at these values for 10 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the seed weight was 10.3 mg, but had become thicker (0.7 mm thick) and was essentially black; i.e., considerably darker in color than nominally undoped crystals. Seed crystals used with NH₄F as a mineralizer typically undergo etching before the onset of crystal growth. After washing, the Co-doped GaN crystal was sandwiched between two pieces of In foil which had been wet with a liquid Ga—In alloy with an electrode area of approximately 0.02 cm². The electrical resistance across the crystal was found to be approximately 1,050 MΩ at room temperature, corresponding to a resistivity of about 3×10⁸ Ω-cm. GaN with a resistivity greater than about 10⁵ Ω-cm is considered to be semi-insulating. The crystal was placed in a photoluminescence apparatus and illuminated with a 266-nm nitrogen laser. No photoluminescence was observable. The ratio of the intensity of near-band-edge photoluminescence from the black GaN crystal to that of a near-transparent, nominally undoped GaN crystal was less than 0.1%.

Example 6

A GaN seed grown by HVPE was hung through a laser-drilled hole by a 0.13-mm silver wire from a silver baffle with a 10% open area and placed in the lower half of a 0.5 inch diameter silver capsule. 0.10 g of NH₄F mineralizer, 0.087 g of Fe_(x)N and 0.305 g of polycrystalline GaN source material were placed in the upper half of the capsule. The capsule was then enclosed within a filler/sealing assembly together with a 0.583 inch diameter steel ring. The capsule and filler/sealing assembly were transferred to the gas manifold and filled with 1.12 g of ammonia. Next, the plug was inserted into the open top end of the capsule, such that a cold weld was formed between the silver capsule and silver plug and the steel ring surrounded the plug and provided reinforcement. The capsule was then removed from the filler/sealing assembly and inserted in a zero stroke HPHT apparatus. The cell was heated at about 11° C./min until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 630° C., as measured by type K thermocouples, and the temperatures were held at these values for 10 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the seed had grown to a thickness of 170 μm and had a reddish/amber color. After washing, the Fe-doped GaN crystal was sandwiched between two pieces of In foil which had been wet with a liquid Ga—In alloy with an electrode area of approximately 0.02 cm². The electrical resistance was over 32 MΩ at room temperature, corresponding to a resistivity of over 3×10⁷ Ω-cm. GaN with a resistivity greater than about 10⁵ Ω-cm is considered to be semi-insulating.

Example 7

A GaN seed weighing 14.3 mg, grown by HVPE, was hung through a laser-drilled hole by a 0.13-mm silver wire from a silver baffle with a 35% open area and placed in the lower half of a 0.5 inch diameter silver capsule. 0.10 g of NH₄F mineralizer, 0.026 g of Mn_(x)N and 1.008 g of polycrystalline GaN source material were placed in the upper half of the capsule. The capsule was then enclosed within a filler/sealing assembly together with a 0.583 inch diameter steel ring. The capsule and filler/sealing assembly were transferred to the gas manifold and filled with 1.04 g of ammonia. Next, the plug was inserted into the open top end of the capsule, such that a cold weld was formed between the silver capsule and silver plug and the steel ring surrounded the plug and provided reinforcement. The capsule was then removed from the filler/sealing assembly and inserted in a zero stroke HPHT apparatus. The cell was heated at about 11° C./min until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 650° C., as measured by type K thermocouples, and the temperatures were held at these values for 60 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the seed had grown to a weight of 53.4 mg and was 350 μm thick and showed an orange color. Susceptibility measurements demonstrated that the Mn-doped GaN crystals were paramagnetic.

Example 8

0.100 g, 0.200 g, or 0.500 g of NH₄F was added to three separate 0.5 inch silver capsules. Also added to each capsule were 0.36 g of polycrystalline GaN and 0.9-1.0 g of NH₃, using the filler/sealing assembly. The concentrations of NH₄F mineralizer, expressed as a mole ratio with respect to ammonia, were 5.4%, 9.3%, and 23.7%, respectively, in the three capsules. The sealed capsules were placed in a cell in a zero-stroke high pressure apparatus and heated to 700° C., held at this temperature for 8 hr, then cooled. GaN crystals grew in all three capsules. Also present in each capsule were crystals comprising GaF₃(NH₃)₂ and (NH₄)₃GaF₆. The weights of the Ga-containing complexes were 0.12 g, 0.25 g, and 0.65 g, respectively, in the three capsules, indicating that the concentration of dissolved Ga-containing species was approximately proportional to the initial mineralizer concentration. The weights of undissolved polycrystalline GaN in the three capsules were 0.29 g, 0.23 g, and 0.03 g, respectively, indicating that higher concentrations of mineralizer enabled more rapid dissolution and transport of GaN.

Example 9

A hole 2 mm in diameter was laser-cut in the center of a 1-cm square GaN seed crystal. The seed crystal was hung from a 25% open-area baffle and placed inside a 1.1″ diameter silver capsule. 1.000 g of NH₄F and 15.276 g of polycrystalline GaN were added to a 1.1″ diameter silver capsule inside a glove box, then a lid with a 0.12″ diameter fill tube was welded to the top of the capsule. The fill tube was attached to a gas manifold without any air exposure to the contents and the capsule was evacuated, then filled with 8.44 g of NH₃. The fill tube was then welded shut. The capsule was placed in a cell in a zero-stroke high pressure apparatus. The cell was heated at about 11° C./min until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 650° C., as measured by type K thermocouples. The current through the top half of the heater was then increased until the temperature gradient ΔT decreased to zero. After holding at ΔT=0 for 1 hour, the temperature of the top half of the capsule was decreased at 5° C./hr until ΔT increased to approximately 30° C., and the temperatures were held at these values for 100 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the seed was found to have grown laterally to about 11.7×16.0 mm and filled in the hole in the center. The crystal, shown in FIG. 11, comprised essentially dislocation-free material over the hole and at its periphery, although boundaries at the position where laterally-grown GaN coalesced over the seed were visible. The growth rate in the m direction was about 17 μm/hr and the growth rate in the a-direction was about 60 μm /hr, more than enough to fill the hole in the seed with high quality material.

Example 10

A 18×18×18 mm long triangle shape GaN seed crystal about 0.2 mm thick was hung from a 15% open-area baffle and placed inside a 1.1″ diameter silver capsule. 0.998 g of GaF₃, 0.125 g of NH₄F, and 10.118 g of polycrystalline GaN were added to the capsule inside a glove box, then a lid with a 0.12″ diameter fill tube was welded to the top of the capsule. The fill tube was attached to a gas manifold without any air exposure to the contents and the capsule was evacuated, then filled with 9.07 g of NH₃. The fill tube was then welded shut. The capsule was placed in a cell in a zero-stroke high pressure apparatus. The cell was heated until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 750° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 700° C., as measured by type K thermocouples. The temperatures were held at these values for 54 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the seed was found to have grown laterally to about 20×20×20 mm. The growth rate lateral to the c axis was approximately 37 μm/hr. The crystal, shown in FIG. 10, comprised essentially dislocation-free material on the edge area. The crystal as grown is very transparent without any visible cracks, boundaries or other defects.

Example 11

A 18×13×0.20 mm thick triangle shape GaN seed crystal was hung from a 25% open-area baffle and placed inside a 1.1″ diameter silver capsule. 1.0 g of NH₄F and 14.655 g of polycrystalline GaN were added to the capsule inside a glove box, then a lid with a 0.12″ diameter fill tube was welded to the top of the capsule. The fill tube was attached to a gas manifold without any air exposure to the contents and the capsule was evacuated, then filled with 8.35 g of NH₃. The fill tube was then welded shut. The capsule was placed in a cell in a zero-stroke high pressure apparatus. The cell was heated until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 660° C., as measured by type K thermocouples. The temperatures were held at these values for 99 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the lateral dimensions of the seed remained the same, about 18×13 mm. The crystal was wedge shaped, with the thickness ranging from 0.50 mm on the end near the baffle to 2.36 mm on the end near the bottom of the capsule. The growth rate was 5 microns/hr along the C (0001) direction on the thin end and 22 microns/hr on the thick end. The crystal was dark greenish but very transparent without any visible cracks, boundaries, or other defects.

Example 12

A 1×1 cm² size GaN seed, 880 μm thick, was hung from a 10% open-area baffle and placed inside a 1.1″ diameter silver capsule. 1.147 g of GaF₃ and 10.112 g of polycrystalline GaN were added to the capsule inside a glove box, then a lid with a 0.12″ diameter fill tube was welded to the top of the capsule. The fill tube was attached to a gas manifold without any air exposure to the contents and the capsule was evacuated, then filled with 8.35 g of NH₃. The fill tube was then welded shut. The capsule was placed in a cell in a zero-stroke high pressure apparatus. The cell was heated until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 750° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 705° C., as measured by type K thermocouples. The temperatures were held at these values for 56.5 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the seed had increased in thickness to 1520 mm, indicating a growth rate of 11.3 microns/hr growth rate along the c (0001) direction.

Example 13

1.53 g of NH₄F and 1.53 g of polycrystalline GaN were added to a 0.5 inch silver capsule without any NH₃. The sealed capsule was placed in a cell in a zero-stroke high pressure apparatus and heated to 700° C., held at this temperature for 13 hr, then cooled. 0.42 of NH₃ gas formed by reaction of NH₄F with GaN during the high temperature process was released when the capsule was opened. Well faceted, spontaneously-nucleated GaN crystals were recovered from the bottom of the capsule. An equivalent of about 0.62 g of NH₄F remained (1.53−37/17×0.42), implying that GaN growth occurred in 40 mole % NH₄F.

Example 14

A slot of 1.3×6.1 mm was laser-cut in the center of a 10×16×0.2 mm HVPE GaN crystal. The GaN seed crystal was hung from a 25% open-area baffle and placed inside a 1.1″ diameter silver capsule. 1.0 g of NH₄F and 12.79 g of polycrystalline GaN were added to the capsule inside a glove box, then a lid with a 0.12″ diameter fill tube was welded to the top of the capsule. The fill tube was attached to a gas manifold without any air exposure to the contents and the capsule was evacuated, then filled with 8.17 g of NH₃. The fill tube was then welded shut. The capsule was placed in a cell in a zero-stroke high pressure apparatus. The cell was heated until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 660° C., as measured by type K thermocouples. The temperatures were held at these values for 94 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the slot was found to be covered over and sealed by newly grown GaN. The slot was very transparent and sealed with high quality new crystal without any visible cracks, boundary or other defects, though a seam/boundary would be expected in the center of the slot.

Example 15

A 1.9 mm×5.1 mm slot was laser-cut in the center of a 8.8 mm×15.1 mm×0.2 mm HVPE GaN crystal. The GaN seed crystal was hung from a 4% open-area baffle and placed inside a 1.1″ diameter silver capsule. 1.0 g of NH₄F and 10.03 g of polycrystalline GaN were added to the capsule inside a glove box, then a lid with a 0.12″ diameter fill tube was welded to the top of the capsule. The fill tube was attached to a gas manifold without any exposure of the contents to air and the capsule was first evacuated and then filled with 8.54 g of NH₃. The fill tube was then welded shut. The capsule was placed in a cell in a zero-stroke high pressure apparatus. The cell was heated until the temperature of the bottom of the capsule was approximately 700° C. and the temperature of the top half of the capsule was approximately 665° C., as measured by type K thermocouples. The temperatures were held at these values for 60 hr. The cell was then cooled and removed from the press. Upon opening the capsule after venting of the ammonia, the slot was found to be substantially covered over by newly grown crystalline GaN, which was very clear and nearly colorless. X-ray diffraction studies were performed on this region. For the (0002) reflection, the intensity vs. ω (“rocking curve”) measurement yielded a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 35 arc-seconds. The impurity levels, as determined by calibrated secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), on the Ga surface of the portion of the GaN crystal grown in the slot were found to be: oxygen, 5×10¹⁷ cm⁻³; hydrogen, 3×10¹⁸ cm⁻³; carbon, 4×10¹⁶ cm⁻³; and silicon, 6×10¹⁵ cm⁻³. On the nitrogen surface of the same portion of the GaN crystal the corresponding impurity levels were found to be: oxygen, 4×10¹⁷ cm⁻³; hydrogen, 2×10¹⁸ cm⁻³; carbon, 5×10¹⁶ cm³; and silicon, 2×10¹⁶ cm⁻³.

While the invention has been described in detail and with reference to specific embodiments thereof, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various changes and modifications can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents. 

1. A crystal comprising gallium nitride, the crystal having a thickness w, wherein the crystal comprises at least one grain, wherein the at least one grain has dimensions x and y defining a plane perpendicular to the thickness w and at least one dimension x or y greater than 2.75 mm, a dislocation density of less than about 10⁴ cm⁻², and is substantially free of tilt boundaries.
 2. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the crystal is grown from one of a single seed and a nucleus.
 3. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the crystal is grown on a patterned GaN substrate.
 4. The crystal of claim 3, wherein the patterned GaN substrate comprises at least one cutout having a predetermined dimension, and wherein the crystal is grown laterally from a boundary of the at least one cutout.
 5. The crystal of claim 4, wherein at least about 50% of the area of a major face of the crystal has a dislocation density of less than about 10⁴ cm⁻².
 6. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the crystal is optically transparent, having an optical absorption coefficient below 100 cm⁻¹ at wavelengths between 465 nm and 700 nm.
 7. The crystal of claim 6, wherein the optical absorption coefficient is below 5 cm⁻¹ at wavelengths between 465 nm and 700 nm.
 8. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the crystal has an oxygen concentration of less than about 3×10¹⁸ cm⁻³.
 9. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the x-ray rocking curve full width at half maximum of the (0002) reflection in the direction of the at least one grain is below about 50 arc^(-sec).
 10. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the crystal is one of an n-type semiconductor, a p-type semiconductor, and a semi-insulator.
 11. The crystal of claim 10, wherein the crystal is magnetic.
 12. The crystal of claim 10, wherein the crystal is luminescent.
 13. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the single crystal has a photoluminescence spectrum peaking at a photon energy of between about 3.38 eV and about 3.41 eV at a crystal temperature of about 300 K.
 14. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the crystal is a wafer.
 15. The crystal of claim 14, wherein the crystal has a rounded edge having a rounded portion.
 16. The crystal of claim 14, wherein the wafer has a crystallographic orientation that is within about 10 degree, of one of an (0001) orientation, an (000 1) orientation, an (10 10) orientation, an (11 20) orientation, and an (10 11) orientation.
 17. The crystal of claim 16, wherein the crystallographic orientation is within about 5° of one of the (0001) orientation, the (000 1) orientation, the (10 10) orientation, the (11 20) orientation, and the (10 11) orientation.
 18. The crystal of claim 17, wherein the crystallographic orientation is one of the (0001) orientation, the (100 1) orientation, the (10 10) orientation, the (11 20) orientation, and the (10 11) orientation.
 19. The crystal of claim 14, wherein the crystal has at least one chamfer on an edge of the crystal.
 20. The crystal of claim 19, wherein the at least one chamfer has a depth that is between about 10 μm and 20% of a thickness dimension of the wafer and a width that is between about one and about five times the depth.
 21. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the crystal is a boule.
 22. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the dislocation density is less than about 10³ cm⁻².
 23. The crystal of claim 22, wherein the dislocation density is less than about 100 cm⁻².
 24. The crystal of claim 1, further comprising at least one dopant, wherein the at least one dopant is one of Be, C, O, Mg, Si, H, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ge, Zr, Hf, a rare earth metal, and combinations thereof.
 25. The crystal of claim 24, wherein the at least one dopant is present in a concentration in a range from about 10¹⁶ cm⁻³ to about 10²¹ cm⁻³.
 26. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the crystal is a single crystal.
 27. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the crystal is a black crystal.
 28. The crystal of claim 27, wherein a ratio of intensity of near-band-edge photoluminescence from the black crystal to that of a crystal that is substantially transparent and substantially undoped is less than about 0.1%.
 29. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the crystal comprises at least 0.04 ppm fluorine.
 30. The crystal of claim 1, wherein the at least one grain has at least one dimension x or y in a range from about 5 mm to about 600 mm.
 31. A semiconductor structure, the semiconductor structure comprising: a substrate, wherein the substrate comprises a group III nitride semiconductor crystal, wherein the crystal comprises at least one grain, the crystal having a thickness z and the grain has dimensions x and y defining a crystal plane perpendicular to the thickness z, wherein the at least one grain has at least one dimension x or y greater than 2.75 mm, a dislocation density of less than about 10⁴ cm⁻², and is substantially free of tilt boundaries.
 32. The semiconductor structure of claim 31, further comprising at least one homoepitaxial layer disposed on the crystal, the at least one layer comprising a Al_(x)In_(y)Ga_(1-x-y)N layer, where 0<=x<=1, 0<=y<=1 and 0<=x+y<=1, wherein the at least one homoepitaxial layer comprises at least one grain, wherein the at least one grain has at least one dimension x or y of at least about 2.75 mm and a dislocation density of less than about 10⁴ cm⁻², and is substantially free of tilt boundaries.
 33. The semiconductor structure of claim 31, wherein the crystal is a wafer.
 34. The semiconductor structure of claim 31, wherein the crystal is a boule.
 35. The semiconductor structure of claim 31, wherein the semiconductor structure forms a portion of one of a light emitting diode, a laser diode, a photodetector, an avalanche photodiode, a transistor, a rectifier, and a thyristor; one of a transistor, a rectifier, a Schottky rectifier, a thyristor, a p-i-n diode, a metal-semiconductor-metal diode, high-electron mobility transistor, a metal semiconductor field effect transistor, a metal oxide field effect transistor, a power metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor, a power metal insulator semiconductor field effect transistor, a bipolar junction transistor, a metal insulator field effect transistor, a heterojunction bipolar transistor, a power insulated gate bipolar transistor, a power vertical junction field effect transistor, a cascade switch, an inner sub-band emitter, a quantum well infrared photodetector, a quantum dot infrared photodetector, and combinations thereof. 